Essays in Philosophy of Religion (Jostarhaye Falsafeh Din)

Abstract Extended abstract Introduction The problem of evil is one of the important issues in philosophy and the new theology, which has always been a place of discussion and reflection by different thinkers. Saint Irenaeus (130-202 AD) is one of the prominent Christian thinkers who played a major role in the defense and evolution of Christian teachings. The explanations he made in this field have caused him to be referred to as one of the greatest “Christian teachers” (Norris, 2004, p.102). Regarding the problem of evil, he has defended the ideas and teachings of Christianity about God and His Absolute Attributes, which describe Him as Omniscient, Omnipotent and Omnibenevolence God. According to Irenaeus, evils are the basis for the cultivation of the human soul, and through the evils, man can cultivate his soul in this world, which is the prison of the soul, so that he can reach his true position in the next world again. Despite the efforts of Irenaeus in his theodicy to solve the problem of evil, it must be acknowledged that his theodicy is faced with challenges and deadlocks, and in this research, an attempt is made to analyze and criticize his theodicy from the perspective of Immāmiyya theology.   Methodology In this research, with a descriptive-analytical method and with a critical approach, an attempt is made to investigate the theodicy of Irenaeus and then criticize it from the perspective of Immāmiyya theology.   Findings Irenaeus believes in the Attributes of Omniscient, Omnipotent and Omnibenevolence of God, and that He has created man in His Own Image in order to get rid of the immaturity that is one of the characteristics of the material world, to cultivate his soul. All these cases can be considered as the strengths of Irenaeus's theodicy, which are highly consistent with Islamic beliefs. The theodicy of St. Irenaeus, although based on the teachings of Christianity, such as the issue of fall of man, original sin, epistemological distance, etc., has tried to solve the problem of evil, and consider evils as necessary for the cultivation of the human soul, but this theodicy, according to its foundations, faces challenges that make it difficult to be truthful and cannot be a complete answer to solve the problem of evil. According to Immāmiyya theology, the theodicy of Irenaeus is faced with deadlocks that it cannot defend the Existence of God with His Absolute Attributes. According to the principles of Immāmiyya theology, it is clear that some evils are necessary to live in the material world and they cannot be separated from material life, and moral evils are not exempted from this rule (Javadi Amoli, 2006: p.90). On the other hand, relying solely on the role of the evil in the cultivation of the soul is neglecting other underlying factors in this regard. Considering only evil as the cause of cultivation is in conflict with the Attribute of Omnibenevolence (Javadi Amoli, 2008: p. 109). Also, Irenaeus' theodicy ends with pointless evil, but from the perspective of the Holy Quran and reason, there is no pointless evil in the realm of existence (Subḥānī, 2010: p. 109).   Discussion and Conclusion In the theodicy of Irenaeus, it is emphasized that evil is necessary for the advancement and cultivation of the human soul, and it is with the presence of evil that a person is able to achieve perfection as well as ultimate happiness (Irenaeus, 2012, p.84). In his theodicy, St. Irenaeus tries more than anything to justify the problem of evil in a way that does not cause the denial of God's Existence and does not challenge His Absolute Attributes, and on the other hand, does not make the best world of creation seem disordered and endless. From the point of view of Irenaeus, what is considered evil is not really evil, or it is the ignorance of a person who wrongly considers good to be evil (Irenaeus, 1919: p.56). Irenaeus attributes most of the things that are considered evil to human ignorance (Irenaeus, 2012: p. 91; LaCocque, 1987: p.109). Irenaeus wants to explain the nature of evil according to moral evil. Irenaeus believes that moral evil is a necessary condition for the creation of man at an epistemological distance from God, and epistemological distance is a gift to man, which causes him to freely say yes to God based on it, and in response to God's non-coercive presence to actualize man as His servant, to evolve and cultivate his soul and to exalted man from face to likeness (Irenaeus, 2013: p.101). However, it should be noted that although one of the causes of actual human pain is the abuse of human freedom, there are other sources of human pain and suffering that are completely independent of human will; such as floods, earthquakes, famines, or in a more general sense, natural evils (Khalili Noush-Abadi, 2016: p. 107).

Abstract The influence of existentialist views, especially those of Jean-Paul Sartre, on Iranian writers and intellectuals in the era before the Islamic Revolution can be seen well. Among the religious intellectuals of his time, Shariati is one of the important figures whose revolutionary and fascinating literature, inspired by existentialist views on the choice and social and political responsibility of man and his radical criticism of the stagnation and immobility of traditional religion, played an important role in the political mobilization of the revolutionary youth and masses. had Shariati's special emphasis on man and humanism centered on human freedom and choice, which ultimately elevates man as a revolutionary actor, is an expression of this. The main question is about how Shariati confronts Sartre's existentialist theory about the concept of man and freedom and responsibility. The main hypothesis is that Shariati, inspired by Sartre's existentialist approach, drew the concept, role and responsibility of man as a radical subject in his religious literature, but he tried with his divine reading of the creation of man against Sartre's material narrative of the crisis of emptiness that governs existentialism. Be freed The method of gathering the necessary data to carry out such a research is documents, in the framework of which a collection of Shariati's views related to Sartre's existentialist approach to the concept of man and his role and place to analyze the concept of man and his responsibility in his religious literature were taken into consideration and analyzed. The collected data were recognized by using different approaches to his views and then the results of this survey were reanalyzed and criticized using conceptual tools in which the analytical-historical method was used. The studies conducted regarding the background of the research show that there are two general approaches in this regard, some such as Seyyed Mehrdad Hosseini Dashtbayaz and Mehrangiz Nemati believe that Shariati's thought is more influenced by Sartre's anthropological approach to the concept of freedom and responsibility. The second approach is in the thought of people such as Bijan Abdul Karimi, Seyyed Javad Miri, and Mohammad Amin Qanirad, who emphasize Shariati's influence of phenomenological existentialist thoughts with Heidegger's ontological view. The findings of this research show that Shariati is one of the few religious intellectuals of contemporary Iran who pays special attention to the concept of man in its modern sense. For this reason, he can be considered a humanistic thinker. In his view, the most obvious characteristic of a human being is self-awareness. Consciousness and self-awareness is the basis for the realization of human freedom as a rebellious being that can overcome the natural and environmental conditions and requirements. He tries to depict the human power in determining his individual, collective and even historical destiny as the most important human characteristic. Shariati's views about man and the role of will and consciousness in him are not influenced by Sartre's existential anthropology. A comparative study of Shariati's views on the definition of man with the foundations of Sartre's anthropology can well show the existentialist roots of his views. The priority of freedom and will in defining man as an independent existence from any kind of imposed nature is a view that is well evident in Sartre's works. Shariati, like Sartre, sees man in an evolutionary process that can evolve his existence based on his conscious role in the developments of his life and to the extent that he affects the limitations and impositions of his environment. Shariati's way of dealing with the role of man in history and the power and capability of man in changing the environment and the world around him and the ability to dominate it is the condition for the realization of human humanity and his definition of the rational action of humans is completely based on an existentialist understanding of man. Shariati's attention to Sartre's existential anthropology did not mean his complete and unquestioning acceptance. He considered emptiness to be a big gap and conflict common in the views of Sartre and other existentialist thinkers and writers, which separated him from this intellectual tradition. According to him, the reason why existentialist thinking has led to absurdity is the superficiality and everydayness of human ideals and the goals of contemporary human life in their eyes. Shariati believed that getting rid of this emptiness depended on raising the level of human ideals in life and believed that a person values everyday material ideals until he has not reached them, and when he reaches them, he will reach emptiness. Shariati considers disbelief in God and ignoring his position as a supreme being and the source of the highest values and ideals in human life as the reason for reaching emptiness. In order to get rid of the absurdity of existentialist attitudes, he tries to present a theistic narrative of existentialist anthropology. Shariati criticizes European atheistic humanism, which in existentialism has led to anxiety and restlessness caused by absurdity and moral crisis caused by the lack of a transcendent moral standard; It tries to provide a new and creative definition of humanism in which man does not stand in front of God, but with his freedom, choice and conscious action, he moves from the material and earthly dimension of his existence to the divine and transcendent dimension. For him, human freedom is a possibility through which man can transform his existential duality into monotheism and by choosing lofty ideals for his life, give his life a lofty value and meaning.

Abstract Extended abstract In this article, we intend to analyze and represent the views of the Sheikh and the leader of Muslim philosophers about happiness and happiness. We think that Ibn Sina's drawing of happiness can be the basis for explaining the "theory of happiness" based on Islamic philosophy. In other words, the opinions of this great philosopher are not only important for familiarizing with the philosophical view of happiness, and in this way, he provides us with valuable teachings; Rather, it will be helpful in terms of obtaining the fundamental foundations necessary for the explanation of the theory of happiness, which is something that is greatly needed by human societies today. The research method is such that questions such as "What is happiness?", "Why and how should we be happy?" And "What is the relation of this happiness with the theory of self?" Provide the background for the desired answers. There is a deep connection between the issue of happiness, happiness and the issue of a person's soul (speaking soul); Because in fact, happiness is what a person achieves and understands, becomes happy and happy and achieves lasting peace; For this reason, it is necessary to discuss the "soul and its powers" and "perception and its types", along with explaining the meanings and concepts related to "happiness" and related to it. Ibn Sina considers pleasure to be the perception of good and perfection on the part of Madrek. Such a perception is associated with happiness because the achievement of pleasure requires the achievement of sensual and physical happiness. All pleasures related to the body, such as the pleasure of seeing a beautiful sight or eating a sweet, or the death of the wrongdoers, or the company of the good, lead to such happiness. Considering the connection between pleasure and happiness in the sense that wherever there is pleasure, there is happiness and vice versa, some believe in the equality of these two concepts. From Ibn Sina's point of view, happiness is one of the passive emotions. And since the levels of perception are divided into four categories: sensory, imaginary, illusion and intellectual, therefore the levels of happiness can also be classified into these four categories. Sensual happiness can be understood with the five external senses, and it is the desired external tangible perception that causes happiness in humans. Imaginary happiness is also the pleasure of the five tangible things, which also causes imaginary happiness, such as remembering previous happiness that has been separated from external possessions, but the feeling of happiness still remains, and this is an imaginary thing. Illusory happiness is also the result of the perception of an illusory matter that has been created in an illusion, such as when the force of fear reaches a group that it has dreamed of or something that it remembers, and as a result, an illusory happiness is obtained from it. The final order of happiness is intellectual happiness, which is created from rational forms in humans. This type of happiness, unlike the other three types, which can be accompanied by some degrees of pain perception and as a result, sadness, will not be accompanied by sadness because there will be no perception of pain. As a result, this type of happiness has absolute purity and perfection. The main example of this type of happiness is the perception of the divine nature of oneself, which because its causes are permanent and inherent, the resulting happiness will also be permanent. The general rule for determining the amount of happiness here is that the higher and more unmarried the person belonging to happiness, the more complete and higher the resulting happiness will be. Among the most important results of this research is that, firstly, the soul has two driving powers (A'alamah) and evidence (Alamah). The perfection of the working power is that the intellect of man finds control over the supernatural powers (lust and anger) so that it is created in the soul, and the perfection of the power of knowledge is that the human being becomes equivalent and equal to the universe in his intellect and thought. Secondly, when a person attains [the authority of stilaiyeh], he has a mastery based on which the actions issued by him appear with the beauty of moderation and far from extremes. We call such a person a moral person. Thirdly, happiness, which is desirable in nature for all human beings, is the same as Bhjat and Sarwar, which is a perceptual state (spiritual-psychological) and is of the type of present perception towards the mild matter. Fourth, the pleasures that are the basis of happiness are divided into three types: sensory pleasure, imaginary pleasure, and intellectual pleasure. According to Ibn Sina and all Islamic philosophers, the fifth highest pleasure is intellectual pleasure. Sixthly, turning to intellectual pleasures, in addition to ensuring the true happiness of man in the world of the hereafter, which is the world of immortality and survival, brings him peace and happiness in the field of life's challenges in today's world.

Abstract The concept of "pilgrimage", denoted by the Arabic term "ziyarat" (Ibn Manzoor, 1414: 335/4), signifies the act of traveling to a specific location, often imbued with religious significance, to pay homage and foster a sense of connection (Zubaidi, 1997: 6/483). The English term "pilgrimage," borrowed from Sanskrit (Reader, 2015: 37-38), encompasses the act of journeying, leaving one's homeland, and engaging in designated rituals at a designated sacred site. Motivations for pilgrimage are diverse and may include seeking spiritual blessings, connecting with a transcendent being or ancestor, pursuing healing, requesting forgiveness, expressing emotions, or commemorating a personal event. While the intention behind pilgrimage may be individual, the practice often involves a collective dimension, with pilgrims gathering at sacred sites to perform rituals. Consequently, pilgrimage can be analyzed at both the individual and group levels. This research aims to explore the common cognitive core underlying the spiritual experience of pilgrimage through three distinct lenses: evolutionary, neurological, and spatial. Notably, within the context of Persian scholarship, while research on pilgrimage has been conducted from theological, Jurisprudential, and traditional Islamic perspectives, a cognitive science approach remains relatively unexplored. Cognitive science, a multifaceted and scientific discipline, delves into the workings of the human mind and its processes (Friendenberg & Silverman, 2016: 5). A subfield within this domain, the cognitive science of religion, focuses on examining religious beliefs, theories, and behaviors through the lens of cognitive science. Scholars in this field investigate how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious concepts, practices, and frameworks through established cognitive capacities (Lawson, 2022: 23). Despite the undeniable cultural and religious significance of pilgrimage, the cognitive and neural mechanisms underpinning this experience remain poorly understood. This research seeks to address this gap by examining pilgrimage rituals, which share similarities with other religious rituals, from three perspectives. Firstly, it will explore the evolutionary underpinnings, investigating the inherent cognitive dispositions within believers that may have facilitated the emergence and persistence of pilgrimage. Secondly, it will examine the neurological mechanisms activated within the pilgrim's mind during these rituals. Finally, it will investigate the bidirectional relationship between the sacred site, as a physical space, and the pilgrim's mind. This research posits pilgrimage as a phenomenon worthy of exploration through the lens of cognitive science, aiming to shed light on the underlying mental processes that shape this widespread religious practice.
Methodology
Despite the undeniable cultural and religious significance of pilgrimage, the cognitive and neural mechanisms underpinning this experience remain poorly understood. This research seeks to address this gap by examining pilgrimage rituals, which share similarities with other religious rituals, from three perspectives. Firstly, it will explore the evolutionary underpinnings, investigating the inherent cognitive dispositions within believers that may have facilitated the emergence and persistence of pilgrimage. Secondly, it will examine the neurological mechanisms activated within the pilgrim's mind during these rituals. Finally, it will investigate the bidirectional relationship between the sacred site, as a physical space, and the pilgrim's mind. This research posits pilgrimage as a phenomenon worthy of exploration through the lens of cognitive science, aiming to shed light on the underlying mental processes that shape this widespread religious practice.
 
Findings
The findings suggest that the cognitive foundation of pilgrimage rituals may lie in the interplay between human evolutionary psychology and belief systems. These belief systems, shaped by our cognitive hardware, may be further reinforced by religious teachings related to pilgrimage.
 
Discussion and Conclusion
This research, examining pilgrimage through the lenses of evolution, neuroscience, and spatiality, sheds light on the cognitive underpinnings of this practice. Firstly, the concept of soul-body dualism and the desire for immortality, rooted in our cognitive system (Bloom, 2007), may have provided the impetus for pilgrimage. Historically, pilgrimage could have fostered social cohesion and cultural transmission. In addition the ability to mentalize (Theory of Mind) may contribute to the belief in personified deities and spirits who respond to rituals. There are further exploration of the cognitive mechanisms behind attributing human-like qualities to supernatural entity (Purzycki, 2022: 72). Secondly, pilgrimage fosters a sense of presence with the visited entity which aligns with Yaden & Newberg's (2022) work about spiritual expriances. Examining how religious narratives and rituals contribute to this sense of presence would deepen our understanding. The potential role of "change in the state of consciousness" (Miller et al., 2019) and mirror neurons (Boyer, 2001) which is associated the collective dimension of the pilgrimage experiences is intriguing.  Also, both emotional and cognitive changes in pilgrims is reported. Investigating the specific cognitive functions affected (memory, attention) and the types of emotional responses (awe, peace) could add depth. The concept of "Urka" (I got it) (Zhao & Etal., 2014) as a factor in openness to seeking help from a supernatural power during pilgrimage, which is aligned with physical act and mental focuse, can be significant. Thirdly, highlighting the embodied nature of pilgrimage and the creation of a sacred space through movement and location (Sayer, 1985; Parkin, 1991) is a valuable point. Bilaterally, specific design elements of shrines have potential influence on pilgrims' experience (Parkin, 1991: 17-18). This research offers a perspective on the cognitive underpinnings of pilgrimage. By integrating evolutionary, neuroscientific, and spatial perspectives, it sheds light on the complex interplay between human beliefs, brain function, and the experience of sacred space.

Abstract Introduction
The problem of evil arises from the apparent contradiction between divine attributes, such as omnipotence, omniscience, and perfect benevolence, on the one hand, and the reality of evil on the other. Some solutions to the problem of evil aim to demonstrate that the existence of evil is not incompatible with our understanding of God and His attributes. Another line of analysis questions whether what we perceive as evil is truly evil that conflicts with the divine attributes. If evil exists, we must determine what we can truly classify as evil. At first glance, many things in the world seem to be evil, but a deep and comprehensive analysis often challenges this perception.
 
Methodology
In this research, with a descriptive-analytical method and with a critical approach.
 
Findings
This article discusses four interpretations that consider many instances of evil to be misunderstood: soul-making theodicy, the benefits of evil, the relativity of evil, and the non-existence of evil. However, whether we consider evil to be relative, demonstrate its benefits, deem it necessary for human growth, or consider it non-existent, we ultimately cannot deny the reality of evil. While some things we believed to be evil may not be, this does not prove that no form of evil exists in the world. Each of the four perspectives can only refute certain instances of evil.
If we consider the entire system of existence and the interrelations of beings, it becomes difficult to judge many things as evil. However, from the viewpoint of each creature, anything that hinders their ongoing pattern or disrupts parts of it is perceived as evil, with destruction or death being the ultimate evil. Just as cancer is evil for a person, being destroyed by white blood cells is evil for a microbe. We cannot say that because the slaughter of a sheep provides nourishment for humans, it should not be considered evil for the sheep.
Judgments about the nature of evil can be approached in three ways:

Our judgments about phenomena evaluated in relation to other realities in the world, which are labeled as evil. However, no definitive judgment on the evil nature of any of these matters can be made; rather, it may be “probable” that such an issue is part of the overall evil within the world's system, but it's uncertain whether any of them truly are evil as we call them.
An individual entity's judgment about itself when it perceives a disruption in its previous course of life or its potentially destructive outcome. Thus, it can be asserted that a specific individual diagnosed with cancer at a specific time unequivocally views it as evil.
An individual's judgment about themselves when they sense deficiencies (such as blindness, ugliness, or disability) compared to others. Although such shortcomings may possess positive aspects within the grand scheme of creation, for the person who experiences them, they are unequivocally evil. In other words, a specific individual at a specific time can perceive their deprivations as evil.

Therefore, there are two categories of phenomena that can truly be considered as evil: "adversities" or "deficiencies" that each individual may encounter. This type of evil is related to the individual rather than the entire universe. However, since "change" is an essential characteristic of the material world and an intrinsic attribute of every material being, adversities, which are transformations of the blessings humans possess, are inherent to this world. Change is an inherent necessity of this world. There is no entity that does not possess both static and dynamic aspects. Thus, a material world without "change" is inconceivable, as it would cease to be material. Moreover, since "diversity" is another intrinsic feature of the world, it necessitates that each being has characteristics that others lack. The traits of each being shape its existential identity; hence, the existential limitations of beings (in a diverse world), which constitute their identities, are intrinsic to each being. If a being were to possess certain other characteristics, it would no longer be the same being.
 
Discussion and Conclusion:
Therefore, it is impossible for God to create a material world devoid of "diversity" and "change" while maintaining its material nature. We cannot question why God created a material world that is dynamic and diverse, because a material world inherently implies diversity and change. It is not as though God created a world and then introduced various changes and diversities into it. Thus, we cannot complain to God about why one person was created black and another white, or why one is created wise and another insane. This is just as unreasonable as questioning why one creature was made in the form of an ant and another as a human, or why one entity in the world was created as a stone and another as a knowledgeable human. Similarly, we cannot complain about why one plant was created to grow and bear fruit while another gradually withers and perishes, or why the strength of a child increases over time while another individual's vigor declines with age. This is because change is intrinsic to this world.
Therefore, both differences and transformations are essential attributes of this universe. Consequently, the things that should be truly considered evil are either adversities or differences. The former arises from the intrinsic necessity of this world, namely change and transformation, and the latter from another intrinsic necessity of this world, namely diversity. Eliminating evils would mean eradicating these two fundamental characteristics of the world, an act that falls outside the realm of absolute divine power, as it involves a logical contradiction.

Abstract The issue of evil is one of the basic issues in theological systems, especially in the philosophy of religion, which has been discussed as a violation of certain attributes and doubt in the principle of belief in God. The defenders of divine justice have defended and explained the solution to the problem of evil in various ways, and it can be said that most of these defenses have been put forward in a theoretical form in the position of justifying evil and suffering. Such an approach in facing the problem of evil, especially the responses that invite sufferers to be patient and submit to evils and promise them rewards in the afterlife, may have bad effects and expose people to social harm. and invite them to silence. Silence and non-protest will result in a person's indifference to their concrete conditions and a lack of solidarity and empathy in facing the suffering.
Investigating the advantages and disadvantages of protest theodicy is the main goal of this research, which deals more with the thought system and thoughts of Johann Baptist Metz. In addition to explaining the advantages, the current research shows the basic shortcomings of Mets's point of view in this field.
Under the influence of Bloch and his emphasis on the power of suffering in challenging the present and the future, as well as under the influence of Walter Benjamin and his emphasis on the importance of stories and memories, Mets made a detailed discussion about suffering and the issue of divine mystery. And also followed by the criticism of the theodicies common in the Christian tradition. Her purpose of talking about the Holocaust cases was because she wanted to question God's secret like Job and present a stimulating, new and modern definition of Christianity. According to her belief, the God who shows herself after this question and appears to us, will appear as a judge to free and save the suffering and victims of injustice. He made serious criticisms on traditional theoretical theodicies; Because he believed that these theodicies have a duty in line with consumerist and bourgeois Christianity. Theoretical theodicy leads to the peace of mind of the religious people about the existence of evil in this world, which will not be good for the Christian society in any way.
It is true that Mets has witnessed the injustices of the Holocaust and Auschwitz and is deeply affected by it, which shows its influence in his protest approach; But he does not consider such objections to mean overcoming doubt and weakening of faith. From this point of view, the purpose of the theodicy of Mats's protest is a believing protest, which despite the fact that the narrative of the suffering is set as a criterion, still prayer and trust in God does not lose its validity. Therefore, it can be claimed that the direction and path of his theodicy is not towards atheism. However, since there is a long distance between the objection and its result, the answerability of theodicy to the objection on the issue of evil is questioned. In addition, it does not present a true image of God's benevolence, power and justice.
The point that we found out in this research is that the aforementioned theorists, especially Mets, did not pay attention to the fact that the invitation to protest is the concept of action in which the hope of changing and improving the state of society lies, and according to him Perhaps, after that, the suffering people will even take over the power of the society, this claim refers to social hope, which is the source of social movements, and it shows itself in various forms, such as strikes and protests. Such hope is commendable; But the example emphasized by them (Ayoub's case) is a protest that only has a theological aspect, and from such a protest, the hope of change and revolution of the society will not be concluded; Because in changing their society, people must join hands to make a transformation happen. Keeping this point in mind, the contradiction we claimed in Mets' view is resolved; Because the middle ground is not the same in both introductions, but the problem of Mets's point of view still remains; Because he suffered from the protest that has a theological aspect and maybe God will show his face after it and cause peace of man, but Mets wanted to conclude from this issue, the change and transformation of the society.
Looking at Metz's thoughts and his maneuver about the Holocaust and bringing it into the discussion of Satan and protest, the reader realizes that he was looking for Zionist exploitation of this event.

Abstract Sages, philosophers and mystics did not summarize existence only in the external worlds and the appearances of the phenomena, therefore they also went on to describe and explain the inner meanings of the phenomena of the world. Therefore, reliable philosophical sources and countless articles and researches have come out to investigate the relationship between epistemology and ontology and the two-way relationship between man and the world. Researches such as: levels and degrees of existence, the truth of human existence levels, knowledge as existence, Mulla Sadra's theory of knowledge, and countless other works. But in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, we can find another narrative, a narrative that asserts that objective truths are outside of us, truths that are inside of you, and from two parallel worlds of humanity and the universe. Therefore, this research has presented a unique interpretation of two parallel worlds and the correspondence between human beings and the universe in accordance with the levels of sensual perceptions with the levels of the worlds of existence. From this point of view, man is a comprehensive of all facts and levels of existence. Therefore, the human thirst for knowledge has always been a stimulus to understand the secrets of existence to reveal the path of knowledge and understanding and what the worlds are, from appearance to meaning. Therefore, in Sadra Shirazi's statement, the knowledge of the world of matter is what frees man from getting lost in the worlds of existence. Because therefore the human soul has the ability to understand the material world first. But by going through a higher level and gradually improving, he finds the ability to perceive subtle forms, and by discovering higher meanings and going through spiritual levels, he reaches intellectual perception. Aristotle also considers the human soul two times in the Etiology: the rational man and the emotional man. Therefore, the view of the philosophers affected by these perceptual levels has led to the discovery and how to realize the knowledge of the human soul and the analysis of the levels of the world. Because there is a relationship between sensory evidence and imaginary form, which leads to rational perceptions based on Sadra's wisdom. Therefore, one of the most important epistemological interpretations of the phenomena of the world in Sadra's wisdom is the correspondence between the world and humanity, which in a circular movement of transcendence in existence and knowledge leads to the correspondence of the three general ecstasies of matter, example, and reason with the carnal senses of sense, imagination, and reason. Therefore, self-knowledge is needed to discover the worlds of the mind and the object. Because the most hidden system of the world can be searched in the human being, because it is one of the fruits of self-knowledge of ontology. Therefore, knowing the hidden worlds depends on knowing oneself, and knowing the levels of existence is affected by knowing our own inner mentalities. And because: lack of self-awareness and lack of self-care keeps a person away from the pure truth and the right path, it is necessary to strive in the sense of spirituality to achieve the meanings of knowledge with a correct understanding of the inner and outer self. On this basis, Descartes raises doubts about himself in such a way as to achieve self-knowledge and thinking in the direction of ontology. Therefore, Sadrul Matalhin Shirazi considers divine attention and everything he sees as an example of the worlds of meaning. And this knowledge is dependent on the level of human knowledge. Each of which has an effect on the other. Therefore, the levels of existence are involved in the growth of levels of self-knowledge. Therefore, in the light of the existential order of man, he finds the true meaning of the worlds of existence, which is not possible to describe the creations on the surface, and the concepts and meanings of the world of knowledge are obtained for the soul. On the other hand, due to the cognitive evolution of the existential levels of the soul, transcendence and the discovery of the secrets of existence are achieved through the higher levels, which are the natural and inherent needs of the human soul. Therefore, the comprehensive knowledge of the worlds of existence will lead to the exaltation of man in the levels of the soul, so the existential order of the soul will cause man to reflect on how to know and then acquire the meanings of knowledge. And the acquisition of the same high knowledge now leads to the abundance and exaltation of the sensual existence and transforms the existence in the light of cognitive knowledge.

Abstract In religious assumptions, waiting situation is considered as intrinsic, which exists in itself. In religious reading, waiting gives meaning to those who are waiting, and the problem of those who are waiting is not taken into consideration; the problem for which they waited. Not only is the formation of the waiting situation overlooked, but also how those who wait remain in waiting is disregarded. In a word, the role of those waiting is ignored. For this reason, in most researches, the influence of the waiting situation on the changes is investigated. Or the waiting situation is valued. Or the promised savior in different religions is compared. But in this research, the focus is on those who are waiting, not Messiah. The scheme of this research is; validity and the issue of waiting is for those who wait. This research with a descriptive-analytical approach seeks to answer this question; what is the problem of waiting for the Messiah?
We know the situations of defeat and waiting, despair and hope, failure and promise from the perception of those who faced these situations. When we talk about the "historical situation of waiting for the Messiah", we are actually talking about the type of view and mentality of the believers who understood it. On this basis, knowing the "historical situation of waiting for the Messiah" requires knowing the face of those who are waiting, it requires knowing the type of view and mentality of the believers who have understood the waiting. As Simmel says about the Theory of historical knowledge, the objects of its inquiries are also the conceptions, intentions, desires, and feelings of personalities. In other words, persons are its subject matter (Simmel, 1977: 39), we must say that in order to know the historical situation of waiting for the Messiah, we should know those who are waiting for the Messiah in history. Because the history of waiting is the history of those waiting.
Anyway, the waiting people want a different situation according to their mentality and way of looking. Waiting is not their problem, their problem is the realization of another situation. But sometimes the waiting for another situation becomes so long that the waiting itself becomes a problem for some of the waiting people. Another waiting arises from the initial waiting. And it becomes waiting for waiting. And the problem of realizing another situation is forgotten. There is a form of waiting for the Messiah that does not wait for the Messiah himself. The problem of this waiting is the prolongation of the Messiah's non-arrival. Those who are waiting are waiting to wait for the Messiah. They want to get out of this waiting situation. Consider the beliefs millennialism. Determining the time of the appearance of the Messiah becomes the expectation for the time of the appearance itself. It means another waiting that passed the problem of initial waiting. The problem of this waiting is to get out of the waiting itself. And, consider most of those who claimed to be the promised savior throughout history. They answered the problem of getting out of the waiting situation. They did not know the answer to the problem of initial waiting. But what is the problem of initial waiting?
At first, a group perceived a situation as unfavorable based on their way of looking at the world. They entered a waiting situation. In the waiting situation, they wanted to get out of the unfavorable situation and enter the favorable situation from their type of view. They waited for an agency to realize the favorable situation. Religions responded to this agency with the promised savior. By accepting the answers of the religions by those who were waiting, the waiting situation was upgraded to the waiting situation for the Messiah. Therefore, waiting situation for the Messiah did not have a pre-religious essence. It acquired the essence of religion in the type of look of believers waiting for the Messiah. In the way non-believers look at the Messiah, it is not a waiting situation, nor does it have a religious nature. Likewise, the appearance of the Messiah is not a problem of waiting for the Messiah. The Messiah is the agency that has given the answer to those who are waiting; The answer to the realization of another situation.
Consider the promised savior in Judaism. The historical waiting situation of the Jews was formed in relation to the temple destruction situation and the exile situation. According to Bible verses and Jewish traditions, the Holy Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed twice by its enemies; Once around 587 BC by Nebuchadnezzar II, and once around 70 AD by Titus. And the Jews were sent into exile, especially after the first destruction. They entered the waiting situation to get out of the state of destruction and exile. They were waiting for an agency to bring them into the state of rebuilding the temple and bring them back together. The promised savior of the Old Testament is Judaism's answer to the long-standing problem of the Jews. Judaism did not put Jews in a state of waiting in advance. The problem of the Jews is not the appearance of the promised savior of the Old Testament. Their issue is gathering again in the promised land, and the glory of the temple again. Or, the historical waiting situation of the Shiites was formed in relation to the state of the usurpation of the caliphate and the Karbala incident. The issue of the Shiites was the return of the caliphate to the children of Imam Ali and revenge against the perpetrators of the Karbala incident. Shia did not put Shiites in waiting situation in advance. In the beginning, the problem of the Shiites was not a religious problem. The promised savior in Shia is the answer to the problem of Shiites.
Therefore, the moment of the promise of religions is the moment of connecting the waiting for the promised with its previous waiting. The people who were waiting saw themselves facing another problem by keeping the initial problem. However, they consider the promised savior to be the answer to both of their problems.

Abstract This article endeavors to provide a rational explanation for petitionary prayer within the context of religious life. It is constructed upon a model inspired by Pascal’s Wager. By utilizing the structural logic of Pascal’s Wager, the paper introduces a parallel model for petitionary prayer. Just as reason compels individuals to wager on belief in God due to the potential for eternal rewards, it similarly suggests that one should wager on petitionary prayer. The cost of praying is minimal, while the potential benefit—should the prayer be answered—is immensely significant. By adopting the framework of Pascal’s Wager, the mere possibility of the efficacy of petitionary prayer—regardless of conclusive empirical evidence—renders it a justified and advantageous wager. Therefore, even in the absence of metaphysical arguments or empirical data concerning the effectiveness of petitionary prayer, the act of engaging in it, as a worthy bet, may be rational, justified, and even essential. The objective of this paper, thus, is not to defend the efficacy of petitionary prayer itself, but rather to uphold the rationality of participating in it—particularly in situations of uncertainty regarding its effectiveness. The first section of the paper provides a concise explanation of Pascal’s Wager. It illustrates how this reasoning can be applied to the uncertainty surrounding the fulfillment of petitionary prayers. Following this, two variations of a wager-based defense of petitionary prayer are presented. The first version centers on a cost-benefit analysis of petitionary prayer. It contends that even if the likelihood of an answered request is low, the potential and certain benefits of praying render it a rational choice. Specifically, when the probability of success is minimal, the possible reward of petitionary prayer significantly outweighs any potential loss. Furthermore, the worst-case scenario of engaging in prayer remains preferable to the best-case outcome of abstaining from prayer. The second version presents a more robust defense by expanding the concept of answered petitionary prayer. According to this perspective, every petitionary prayer is answered because God always provides the best possible response—even if that response does not precisely align with the petitioner’s request. Within this framework, the petitioner can be assured that their petitionary prayer will certainly be answered, albeit not necessarily in the anticipated form. Consequently, every outcome becomes beneficial. This second wager secures the utility of petitionary prayer independently of any specific result and more strongly supports the rationality of engaging in prayer. The paper then addresses challenges to faith that arise in the context of unanswered petitionary prayers. These challenges emerge when unanswered requests lead to crises of faith. For instance, if someone enters into the wager of petitionary prayer but receives a negative response, they may experience weakened or lost faith. This raises the question: would petitioning God still be a justified and low-cost action? Such concerns could potentially undermine the rationality of the wager, as the loss of faith may appear to be an excessive cost. The response provided is that petitionary prayer offers both the potential benefit of being answered and the certain benefit of the various goods associated with the act of praying. While petitionary prayer may carry the risk of diminishing faith in the absence of a favorable answer, refraining from it—though it may preserve weak faith—entails forfeiting the possibility of answered petitions and the broader spiritual benefits that prayer can provide. Is the potential weakening of faith due to unanswered petitionary prayer significant enough to undermine the rationality of the wager? Arguably not. If one’s faith collapses solely because of an unanswered petition, such a collapse indicates a lack of depth in the faith itself. Therefore, while the risk of weakened faith is real, it does not constitute a decisive harm when weighed against the substantial and probable benefits of petitionary prayer. Rather than detracting from the wager, it highlights the superficiality of the underlying faith. Ultimately, wagering on petitionary prayer remains a rational and justified choice. In situations of unanswered petitionary prayer, two possibilities emerge: 1. Unanswered petitionary prayer may lead to the collapse of faith and undermine belief in God. 2. Unanswered petitionary prayer may function as a means of deepening and testing one’s faith—provided that it is practiced not merely to achieve a specific outcome, but as an act of complete trust in divine wisdom. Consequently, from a broader perspective of potential gains and losses—and within the conditional reasoning of the wager—petitionary prayer ultimately serves the best interests of the petitioner. On one hand, it offers the promise of great reward if answered. On the other hand, even the denial of such prayers may act as a pathway for refining and strengthening one’s relationship with God. Thus, in the face of uncertainty, maintaining faith in God emerges as a rational and commendable choice.

Abstract  
The relationship between the sanctity of nature and the concept of evolution is one of the most debated issues in contemporary philosophy of religion. While naturalistic explanations often assert that evolutionary processes negate the need for a divine creator, religious perspectives strive to preserve the sacred essence and spiritual significance of nature. This tension raises critical questions: Can the sanctity of nature coexist with scientific accounts of evolution? Does the evolutionary process inherently lack a purpose, or can it be seen as part of a divine plan? 
 
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a French Jesuit theologian and scientist, provides a unique perspective that seeks to bridge this divide. Teilhard accepts the scientific validity of evolutionary theory while proposing a theological framework that endows evolution with spiritual significance. He interprets evolution as not merely a biological mechanism but as a sacred and purposeful process moving towards a transcendent goal, which he calls the "Omega Point." In Teilhard’s view, this ultimate destination reflects a state of divine unity and consciousness. 
 
This study explores Teilhard’s redefinition of evolution and its implications for the sanctity of nature. It addresses three central questions: 

How does Teilhard de Chardin reconcile the scientific narrative of evolution with the theological understanding of nature's sanctity?
What role does his concept of the "Noosphere" play in framing evolution as a spiritual journey?
How does Teilhard’s reinterpretation of Christianity align with or diverge from traditional theological doctrines?

 
Methodology  to examine Teilhard de Chardin’s philosophical and theological ideas. By analyzing primary texts, such as **The Phenomenon of Man**, and reviewing secondary literature, the study evaluates Teilhard's framework in light of its relevance to contemporary discussions on science and religion. The methodology focuses on understanding Teilhard’s integration of theological concepts with scientific discoveries, as well as his contributions to redefining the relationship between humanity, nature, and evolution.
The findings demonstrate that Teilhard de Chardin’s vision offers a profound synthesis of evolution and spirituality. His perspective sheds light on three major areas: 
   Teilhard rejects the traditional dichotomy between science and religion. He argues that evolution is not a random or purely materialistic process but one infused with divine intentionality. By integrating theology with evolutionary science, Teilhard redefines Christianity as a dynamic faith that embraces the unfolding story of the cosmos. His framework shifts the focus from static interpretations of creation to a progressive understanding of nature’s sanctity.
 
   Central to Teilhard’s thought is the idea of the "Noosphere," a realm of collective human consciousness that emerges from the evolutionary process. As humanity advances intellectually, spiritually, and socially, the Noosphere becomes a unifying force, directing evolution toward its ultimate goal—the Omega Point. This concept underscores the interconnectedness of humanity and nature, emphasizing that evolution is both a biological and spiritual phenomenon.
 
   Teilhard envisions the Omega Point as the culmination of evolution, where all elements of creation converge in a state of divine unity and transcendence. This ultimate destination reflects the sacred purpose inherent in nature’s evolutionary trajectory. For Teilhard, the Omega Point is not only a theological concept but also a practical vision for humanity’s role in fostering global consciousness and spiritual progress.
 
Teilhard de Chardin’s perspective challenges reductionist views of evolution by presenting it as a process imbued with meaning and sanctity. His integration of science and spirituality offers a compelling response to criticisms that evolutionary theory undermines religious belief. Unlike traditional theological interpretations that often see evolution as a threat to the sanctity of nature, Teilhard embraces it as a divine mechanism for creation’s ultimate purpose. 
 
Moreover, Teilhard’s redefinition of Christianity invites a reevaluation of its doctrines in light of modern science. By emphasizing the compatibility of faith and reason, he provides a theological framework that aligns with contemporary scientific understanding. His concept of the Noosphere highlights humanity’s responsibility in shaping the future of evolution, fostering a vision of collective spiritual growth and ecological stewardship. 
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin’s interpretation of evolution represents a groundbreaking contribution to the philosophy of religion. By envisioning evolution as a sacred and purposeful process, Teilhard reconciles the scientific narrative with the theological affirmation of nature’s sanctity. His concept of the Noosphere and the Omega Point underscores the interconnectedness of humanity, nature, and the divine, offering a hopeful vision for the future of both science and spirituality. 
This study highlights Teilhard’s relevance in contemporary debates, emphasizing that his framework not only preserves the spiritual significance of nature but also provides practical insights into humanity’s role within the evolutionary cosmos. As challenges to the sanctity of nature persist in the modern world, Teilhard’s thought remains a vital resource for integrating science, theology, and ethical responsibility.